This study covered about 40 locations that represent a wide range of Indonesia's upland economies and agriculture. These detailed case studies produced several important lessons, many with significant implications for public policy. Perhaps the most important finding is that real innovations and proven development advances often owe more to smallholders and traders than to official projects. This finding is not a surprise, but it confirms the hypothesis that the extent of upland development may be underestimated and overlooked because it is often generated from the grassroots. Another conclusion is that proved cases of innovations often arise from unpredictable circumstances that are thus difficult to anticipate in terms of policies. Policies and projects may well have a positive impact, but in many cases the innovations derive from a combination of farmers' initiatives, unexpected events, and the results of transformed policy objectives.